Global Politics, Class, and Dual Citizenship
The Lost Art of Reciprocity:
What Happens To A Dream (Dual
Citizenship) Denied?
Presented by:
Sharon Minor King, Ph.D.
University of Maryland Baltimore County
Montgomery County Public Schools
94th
Annual ASALH Meeting
Thursday October 1, 2009
Hilton Cincinnati Netherland Plaza, Room:
Salon C (Breakout Room)
2PM– 3:45PM
LAND & LANDING
Leaving home is often hard…
Passport,
water bottle, and VISA card.
Departure with tears
of joy or sadness…
Pending on the level of madness.
Getting ready, getting there.
Who will leave you?
Who
will greet you?
Is there someone there who’ll care?
I. PREFACE
In 2006, I decided to become more than a tourist
in Ghana. I wanted to bring to fruition a dream that had begun around the kitchen table while visiting my father as a child.
As he prepared breakfast, he often told stories about how we were the descendants of great kings and queens of Africa. Whether
the stories were true or not, when one is hungry for nutritional and paternal sustenance, anything is possible! Such stories
became the foundation of my love and commitment to Africa.
After several false starts, I finally
arrived on the Continent in 1989. My first visit was a study tour to Egypt with Egyptologist Yosef ben-Jochannan. While studying
the Nile Civilizations proved vital to my growing identity, it was my visit to Ghana, West Africa that solidified my dedication
to the Continent of my ancestors.
In 2006, I decided to invest
in Africa beyond mere token contributions to NGO’s, churches, and private families. I wanted to secure a future in Ghana
by building a home where African Americans could prepare for the potential “culture shock” that awaited them.
You see, the tourist brochures do not prepare African Americans for comments such as “obruni” (which means ‘white
person’); the tour guides tend to overlook just how many posters of Jesus Christ there are throughout a country where
discussion of him being an African is totally avoided. I wanted to build a place where both Africans and African Americans
could talk and listen to one another informally, but with deliberate intentions to make a difference on both sides of the
Atlantic.
As an anthropologist, I found Ghana an ideal location
for such a site. Historically, Ghana has contributed significantly to an understanding of Africa within the Americas (examples
of Adinkra symbols, kente cloth, etc.). The visit of Ghana’s first President Kwame Nkrumah (Ebony magazine cover) further
solidified my decision to make Ghana my “second home”. Nkrumah’s invitation to many African Americans during
his lifetime and beyond, continues to motivate us to help in the development of the country, economically, educationally,
and culturally. The many friendships and relationships I have maintained throughout the years has afforded me to contribute
personally and professionally to my long-held dream of re-entering “the door of no return”.
But, the possibility of ever being a seasonal resident of, or a significant
citizen to, Ghana is as likely as turning “ a piece of wood into a crocodile. Why? The following topics may shed some light on issues that get very little consideration or reciprocal discussion these
days; but I believe they may be at the core of Africa’s current and future development as it relates to all Africans
identified within the Diaspora. Namely, the reciprocal possibilities of land ownership as it relates to dual citizenship on
both sides of the Atlantic ocean are major topics for any meaningful discussion leading to African development, self-determination
and empowerment.
The following study has been accumulated over 15
years of active research in the U.S. and in Africa. As an aesthetic anthropologist, ordained minister, and educator, I have
been able to collect a variety of materials and participate in many cultural events that have also allowed me access to diverse
groups, classes, and valued artifacts. In addition to collecting cultural materials, I was also able to interview key members
of diverse cultural groups within Ghana and those who have migrated to the United States. My primary interactions have been
among members of the Ga and Ewe culture groups. Their willingness to answer my inquiries and invite me into their families
and group celebrations remains an important part of my love, respect, and loyalty to the Republic of Ghana.
III. INTRODUCTION
While
citizens of Africa and the Caribbean Diaspora have exercised their options to migrate and even achieve citizenship in the
United States, similar opportunities are seldom mutual or reciprocal for indigenous African Americans. Often within one generation, Africans can achieve legal citizenship in America, if they are willing to
undergo the enculturation process, and pay the exorbitant card-carrying fee to become an “American”.
Yet, these opportunities are generally not reciprocal or accessible to “indigenous”
African Americans when they attempt to gain similar status within African countries. Beyond bartering for touristy trinkets or temporary site visit pleasures, there are significant barriers that prevent permanent
exchanges between Africans and Africans Americans. For African American women, it is even more incredible to invest, unless
married or “sponsored” by a sanctioned organization (e.g. education, religious, non-governmental).
Social indicators of identity and location, such as land ownership or dual citizenship, are generally beyond the grasp
of many African Americans. The African infatuation with celebrities, and the potential financial gain many on the Continent
believe is available within tourism, further divides meaningful cultural exchanges between Africans and African Americans.
Finally, with the “on again/off again” status of the controversial sixth region within the African Union, the
expectations of Africans on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean continues to be a challenge for those seeking evidence of unification
among Africans, globally.
Historically, many who migrate to the United States, find that the “The American Dream”
is promoted, exported, and exploited throughout global media mechanisms. For example, the film industry
of Nigeria, commonly known as “Nollywood” and “Gollywood” in Ghana, provides entertaining treatments
of life and the desire to come to America! On both sides of the Atlantic, one can find romantic and surreal images of both
countries and continents promoted by those who are often motivated by more financial gain than cultural authenticity. Too often, African Americans are “mesmerized” by the mere fact of just being in the ‘Motherland’;
and Africans are too often ill-prepared for the realities of racism and sexism within the Americas. By
the time either recognizes the need to challenge some of the host country’s perceptions of them, it is time to go home!
During the brief visit of President Obama made to Ghana (summer, 2009), he reprimanded its
Parliament on the level of corruption that plagues African nations and delays any significant “partnerships” with
countries like the United States of America:
“This is…a time when the boundaries between people are overwhelmed by our connections…so
I do not see the countries and peoples of Africa as a world apart; I see Africa as a fundamental part of our interconnected
world – as partners with America on behalf of the future that we want for all our children…We must start from
the simple premise that Africas’s future is up to Africans. I say this knowing full well the tragic past that has sometimes
haunted this part of the world…
America will not seek to impose any system of government on any other nation - the essential truth of democracy
is that each nation determines its own destiny. What we will do is increase assistance for responsible individuals and institutions,
with a focus on supporting good governance - on parliaments, which check abuses of power and ensure that opposition voices
are heard; on the rule of law, which ensures the equal administration of justice; on civic participation, so that young people
get involved; and on concrete solutions to corruption like forensic accounting, automating services, strengthening hotlines,
and protecting whistle-blowers to advance transparency and accountability.
According to press reporters Cameron Duodu:
…it would appear
that Obama will have to unlearn a lot about Africa himself, and re-educate his fellow G8 leaders too. For what Africa needs,
and asks for, is an overturning of an economic system that gives a Kenyan coffee grower 0.2% of the proceeds from coffee,
whilst Western coffee traders pocket the rest (New African, 9/2009).
Without recognizing the historical preface to his criticisms, President Obama’s comments seemed
to overlook the continued role countries “like America” play in facilitating and promoting corruption, abroad.
On both sides of the Atlantic, there are many stories to tell of high-level corruption (e.g. Madoff ‘s global scandal;
Societe Generale fraud; Enron misrepresentation; sub-prime loans predominantly targeted to African Americans and other cultures
of color.
But, what happens to regular citizens who are dedicated to the development of Africa (perhaps
on smaller and a more personal scale), but lose time, money, and even their lives due to the common acceptance of “petty
corruption” such as that experienced during the process of buying land or starting a business? What
recovery or punitive actions are available when they experience irregularities and daily infractions within Africa? What happens
to individuals and small African American businesses when revenue earned is forwarded to countries that refuse to grant African
Americans (U.S. citizens and businesses ) reciprocal opportunities or legal recourse? What really happens
to African American investments and individual accomplishments on the Continent that are either ignored or diminished when
the donor is not recognized as a “celebrity”? As Langston Hughes has poetically observed:
What
happens to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore--
And then run?
Does it stink
like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over--
like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags
like a heavy load.
Or does it explode?
While Africans
and Caribeans may have discovered their potential and financial gain by obtaining American citizenship, what happens to U.S.
African Americans who also dream of reciprocal status and equitable access, abroad?
Are
U.S. Africans expected to accept “second-class” citizenship within “third” world countries while doling
out “first” world cash? This author thinks not! Based upon the historical efforts and gains already accomplished
by African Americans throughout history, it is time that Africans recognize that the good of the Continent rests upon all
of us, no matter if we left yesterday, the day before yesterday, or centuries ago.
First, it appears there is
a need to first revisit this classification of “Africans in the Diaspora”. I have chosen to
use the word “indigenous” when referring to African Americans born in the United States for several reasons. One,
to identify with those who sacrificed so much in order for so many Africans to achieve in the United States is worth identifying
with the many culture groups classified as “indigenous”, globally. Two, with so many members of culture groups
adopting the term, “African Americans” as their own, it is still important for those who originated the term to
differentiate as those who acknowledge their parents born in the Americas or the Caribbean (footnote reference to exhibit at Schomburg).
While
the term “indigenous” might cause some to wince like word “negro” did during the 1960’s, (“black”,
and even “African” caused past generations to complain), what could be more uncomfortable than to be considered
a “source of enterprise” (e.g. partnerships) or a “cash cow” (e.g. tourism)? Labeling by others has
always been a source of discomfort for those being labeled; however, to neutralize ones identity to the extent that there
is no unique purpose for an identity is equally as tragic (note: being color blind is considered pejorative by the one being
made ‘invisible’).
Defining oneself remains an
important source of cultural identity. As African Americans born, raised, and contributors to the progress of so many nations,
it is important to differentiate in order to gain better appreciation and respect for self and from others. Studies show that
migration is a challenge whether it is voluntary or involuntary. To leave ones homeland is never easy, however the arrival
to the United States has been made much more tolerable because of the sacrifices made by many who I proudly term as “Indigenes”
There are diverse answers to this question pending upon whom you
ask it. According to the Florida Africana Studies Consortium:
The African Diaspora refers to the dispersal of African peoples all over
the world through voluntary, forced and induced migrations. These have resulted, thereby, in the relocation
and re-definition of African peoples in a range of now international locations and their recreation and reformation
of these cultures wherever they exist.
The African Union defines the African
Diaspora as "[consisting] of people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship
and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union."
Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African Diaspora as an
important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."
While some may
find the answer obvious, it has been my experience to take nothing for granted in, or about, Africa. What may appear obvious
is not so clearly understood by either side of the Atlantic. If an African American were to ask “who is considered an
‘African Diasporan’ the answer could include those who were born in America, but continue to identify with ancestral
roots from Africa through their creativity and expressiveness.
However, to ask an ordinary
African who is a Diasporan, the answer might identify only those who were born on the Continent, but migrate to other continents
like North America. From popular accounts, an “African Diasporan” is the term used by diplomats, parliamentarians,
and business communities that desire the return of those who have successfully acquired wealth, intellectual property, and
international acclaim within one to two generations.
There is little evidence available that suggests
that African Diasporans also include African Americans whose ancestors left the Continent four or more generations ago. Further,
while tourism targets African Americans from the United States as a primary market for the “slave tours”, there
remain insurmountable challenges for those who seek a more permanent residence. While there are indeed exceptions, such invitations
are too often exclusively extended to celebrities, accomplished politicians, and wealthy business moguls (no matter how the
money is accumulated…).
V. PLACES TO CALL ‘HOME’: ‘IS DUAL CITIZENSHIP’ POSSIBLE FOR AFRICAN
AMERICANS?
In 1990, Seestah Imahkus Njinga writes about the reasons she and her husband,
the late Nana Okofo Iture Kwaku I Ababio decided to move to Ghana, permanently. They, like thousands before and after them,
had determined life in America was becoming more than a challenge. She writes:
We had both been married before and had seven children between us, including grandchildren coming,
so we were not exactly teenagers…But even within those blessings we continued to work and struggle, while helplessly
watching the moral and economic decline of our community. Crime was on the rise, heavy drugs were in the area and police protection
was a dismal failure. Work and struggle was the name of the game. Struggle to pay the mortgage, the utilities, the car note,
the bank loan, credit cards, life insurance policies(really death policies)…and then work while trying to put something
away for your old age…And there were all the other expenses connected to the operation of our Travel Agency/Boutique
and Car Service.
In 1995 during my first trip to Ghana, I had the honor of interviewing Nana Okofi,
co-founder of One Africa, a guest house and restaurant complex, located
between Cape Coast and Elmina. During that prophetic interview, he expressed a growing concern for the tourist trade that
was about to explode along the western coast of Africa30. Off camera, he discussed the concentrated effort of non-Africans upon tourism to capitalize on the burgeoning interest of
African Americans who were returning to the places of ancestral tribute in record-breaking masses. As a blossoming cottage
industry, there were visionaries bringing large groups to study – not simply tour - Ghana in order to supplement the
“mis-education” that was so prevalent in the United States about African Americans and Africa31. Visionaries like Yosef ben-Jocahannan, Asa Hilliard, Anthony Browder, Leonard and Rosalind Jeffries and many others were
bringing plane-loads of us across the Atlantic Ocean with the deliberation of reinforcing what the ancestors had been preserving
and our DNA was finally revealing.
In her writings, Seestah Imahkus describes the tremendous challenges they faced returning
“home” to Ghana. From luggage to losing large sums of money to property sellers, their repatriation efforts were
full of hardships. But, there were many blessings and opportunities they also experienced. Today ONE AFRICA still remains
a “safe haven” for African Americans who are committed to living a respite from their American reality.
To date, I am not aware of her status as a “resident”
in Ghana. I am not certain if she has renounced her U.S. citizenship, and has officially become a citizen of the Republic
of Ghana. Like others who choose to remain in Ghana, there are very strict rules for non-citizens.
According to the U.S. State Department:
A person who acquires a foreign citizenship by applying for it may lose U.S. citizenship.
In order to lose U.S. citizenship, the law requires that the person must apply for the foreign citizenship voluntarily, by
free choice, and with the intention to give up U.S. citizenship.
However, a citizen of Ghana may hold citizenship of any other country
in addition to his/her citizenship of Ghana (Chart A). Therefore, an African American does not have a “reciprocal”
exchange in Ghana as a citizen of Ghana has within the U.S. The most an African American can expect is the “Right To
Abode” in Ghana, which requires an arduous, and is often a subjective process, riddled with opportunities for petty
bribery.
In a series of articles by Kofi A. Boateng,
he defines who should qualify for dual citizenship. But, his focus is myopically upon the issue regarding Ghanaians who are
“Citizens by Birth” versus “Citizens by Registration”, only. There is no consideration for African
Americans or anyone else seeking repatriation. The invitation from Ghana’s first President Kwame
Nkrumah, and later extended encouragement by President J. J. Rawlings seems to have “dried up
like a raisin in the sun”!
Such policies suggests that while African Americans
are “invited” to Ghana as tourist - and now for business ventures as “partners” – laws and policies
recognize these exchanges only for temporary purposes and remain discouraging for those seeking more permanent alliances.
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DUAL CITIZENSHIP (Chart A)
| Ghana | United
States |
RIGHT TO ABODE/INDEFINITE
RESIDENCY - GHANA |
| 1.
A citizen of Ghana may hold citizenship of any other country in addition his/her citizenship of Ghana.
2. African Americans and other Africans born in the Diaspora do not have dual citizenship and still require visa to enter Ghana. Applicants should attain a ten year period of
stay before applying.
3.A Visitors Permit
provides for legally remaining in Ghana For (usally) 60 days. Renewals are allowed during a visit or a Change (such as employment). Failure to do this will result in a Monetary penalty and/or deportation. 4.An
application must be accompanied with: a.
Passport b.
Four (4) passport sized photos c.
A returning ticket of the applicant d. A letter stating the reason for
the extension and the length of stay. e.
Evidence of sufficient funds to maintain oneself. © 2007 CopyrightGhana Immigration Service All Rights
Reserved
5.A citizen of Ghana may hold citizenship of any other country in addition his/her citizenship of Ghana.
6.African Americans and other Africans born in the Diaspora do not have dual citizenship and still require visa to enter Ghana. Applicants should attain a ten year period of
stay before applying. 7.A Visitors Permit provides for legally remaining in Ghana For (usally) 60 days. Renewals are allowed during a visit or a
Change (such as employment). Failure to
do this will result in a Monetary
penalty and/or deportation.
8.An application must be accompanied with: f. Passport g. Four
(4) passport sized photos h. A returning ticket of the applicant i.
A letter stating the reason for the extension and the length of stay.
j. Evidence of sufficient funds to maintain oneself. | 1.A person who acquires a foreign
citizenship by applying for it may lose U.S. citizenship. In order to lose U.S. citizenship, the law requires that the person
must apply for the foreign citizenship voluntarily, by free choice, and with the intention to give up U.S. citizenship.
2. Under the 2009 Lottery Diversity Program,
Ghana received 7,322 awards (Diversity Visa Lottery 2009 (DV-2009). 3. In 2008, 5,914 received permanent resident visas from Ghana (Diversity
Visa Lottery 2009 (DV-2009, U.S. State Department). | 1. African Americans and other Africans born
In
the Diaspora do not have Dual Citizenship
and still require visas to enter Ghana. 2.A Ghanaian
national who by the acquisition of another nationality can not hold a Ghanaian nationality because of the laws governing
the acquired nationality and who wishes to be granted Right of Abode shall not be required to produce documentary evidence
of financial standing. 3.A person of African descent in
the Diaspora who wishes to be considered for the grant of Right of Abode, shall be subject to a verification process which
requires among other things:
a. An attestation by two Ghanaians who are notary publics, lawyers,
senior public officers or other class of persons approved by the Minister to the effect that the applicant is of good character
and that they have know the applicant personally for a period of at least five years. b. A declaration by the applicant to the effect that
the applicant has not bee convicted of any criminal offence and been sentenced to imprisonment for a term of twelve months
or more.
a.
Production by the applicant documentary evidence of financial standing.
b. The
applicant satisfying the Minister that the applicant is capable of making a substantial contribution to the development
of Ghana. c. That the applicant has attained at least the age of eighteen (18) years. 2. An applicant for Right of Abode
shall submit the application in person. 3.
For the purpose of verification under sub-regulation (3), the applicant must
have resided in the country: d. Throughout the period of twenty-four (24) months immediately preceding the date of the application.
e. During
the seven (7) years immediately preceding the period of twenty-four (24) months referred to in paragraph (a), for a period
amounting in the aggregate to not less than five (5) years.
|
| © 2007 CopyrightGhana Immigration Service. All Rights
Reserved
| http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1753.html | |
During that interview with Nana Okofu, he discussed the challenges facing African
Americans who sought repatriation to the Continent. He stated how the development of “slave tourism” had motives beyond mere desire to reconnect
with Africa (footnote video interview). In Sekou Nkrumah’s book, he determines that repatriation is no more supported
today than Pan-Africanism on either side of the Atlantic. He further suggests that both movements are perceived as ‘jeopardy’
to the continued exploitation of Africans, whether on the Continent or beyond:
Since the beginning
of the slave raid in Africa, the labor and resources of the (C)ontinent have proved to be an invaluable resource for building
the economies of the U.S. and Western Europe.(pg.11).
Like the reparation movement, repatriation is not encouraged possibly because of political
consequences at home and abroad. In President Obama’s speech to Ghana’s Parliament, he discusses the importance
of Africa’s future by stating:
We must start from the single premise that Africa’s future is up to Africans.
However, there was no reference to his recognizing the many contributions African Americans have already
made to Ghana. Further, there was no recorded evidence of a public meeting with the many African Americans who already live in Ghana. While
the Peace Corps volunteers received televised recognition, there is no report of him meeting with the African American Association
of Ghana or any other group of African Americans. Perhaps, Ghanaians are following the lead that is too often portrayed by
America regarding its own African American citizens: ignore them…and perhaps they will go away!
In
Ann Simmons article, she quotes David Robinson, the son of famed Jackie Robinson, who states his reasons for moving to Africa,
permanently:
Robinson maintains that such success would have
been harder to achieve in the United States. "I still believe the psychological barriers and calluses and bruises that
we sustained throughout our American experience continues to block us from taking advantage of the opportunities that we can
have," said Robinson, who retains a U.S. passport but expects to become a Tanzanian citizen. "We are not the normal
American immigrant but the descendants of slaves. We have to recognize that."
Like most people, indigenous African Americans desire
a “place”, a “location”, and appropriate recognition within both their place of origin (America) or
their chosen destination (Africa). More importantly, no matter where you are, each of us wants to be “appreciated”
and “respected” during our lifetime and generations to come forth. To be a Diasporan is not exclusively African,
yet there appears to be some resistance to the term being used when describing those who were not born on the continent of
Africa. No matter, as one who has the freedom to choose, I am both an “African” and an “American”
who desires to bring the best of both continents into one mutually-beneficial “partnership”.
In
2003, Simmons writes of the “Right To Abode” which is a far cry from what President Kwame Nkrumah envisioned when
he extended the invitation:
The offer of citizenship has since been modified to the ‘right
of abode’, and legal details are still being ironed out, much to the frustration of some African-Americans. "Just
taking him (Nkrumah) at his word, they packed up and came over expecting to get work permits," Cooper recalled. "It
was easier said than done. Many have been disappointed that it has not happened sooner. But they are not totally discouraged."
But is this possible? Are partnerships exclusively available to only a limited few of celebrities?
Perhaps, the following will provide some answers, or at least some reflections regarding who Africa considers African enough
to be considered “African”. This is my own personal story:
In 2006, I was
shown and selected a beautiful piece of land approximately a mile away from the Gulf of Guinea, near a resort town called
Kokrobite, outside of Accra. Recommended by very reliable sources, I was pleased and excited about our success in securing
this land. I also secured a recommended architect, and proceeded to fulfill this “spirit-filled” assignment. After
exchanging the initial funds, I received the “legal” documents that secured my ownership and provided authorization
to begin the building phase. As stated on our website, <cyberchurchinternationalacademy.com>
this was truly a “calling” from God that was far more than I ever would have attempted to do on my own. But with
God, all things are (still) possible…and so I obeyed.
However, the
real dilemma began in 2007 when my daughter, a ministerial colleague, and I visited the original site of my property. A switch
had been made on the property because I was told the first had been reduced for a road. At first the verbal exchanges were
quite unsettling because it appeared to be suspicious. But after a series of diplomatic exchanges, I agreed to accept a second
location because it was equally as beautiful, and sat on a corner lot , which remained my preference.
I also had to secure another architect because the original one seemed to have “cultural difficulties”
understanding that the house was to be designed in the shape of an octagon and not a rectangle. As an anthropologist,
I attempted to be very sensitive to what could have merely been cultural differences, but it didn’t work. It was after
talking informally about her experiences with African Americans that I became aware of many pre-judgments she harbored from
her travels to the U.S. Eventually, a new architect was hired, but he proved to also be a disappointment.
In the beginning, when he visited the second site, he found that someone else had begun building
on it. I immediately notified my contacts, and after several exchanges we settled on yet another third property. Trying to
maintain a proactive spirit of “Ubuntu”, reconciliation and cooperation, we attempted to move forward. I accepted
the third property. I was told that this land was even better than the first two!
However, again when the architect and his crew went to dig the foundation, they found that the property had been reduced
by 25%, and that the large rectangle of two plots of land was now a very narrow long strip. Not only was it too narrow for
the design of Octo-Ghana House, it was wedged in between three other properties and not on
a corner! Also, the paperwork he had been given by my in-country contacts was not of either the second or third piece of land…but
of yet another piece!!! To date, I have papers for three pieces of land, while the actual property is yet another! The second
architect is no longer communicating and has refused several attempts by my representatives to provide an accounting of funds
deposited to him. To date, $14,000 is unaccounted for by the architect. Fortunately, an additional $5,500 has been returned
to me out of the integrity and goodness of my “adopted” family. Yet, over $2,000 more has been wasted with an
architect who appeared to have prejudgments about African Americans…especially African American women. From the current
state of this experience, one could surmise that African Americans cannot secure “forty acres and a mule” on either
side of the Atlantic!
VI. THE SAGA GOES ON: YET, ARE WE NOT ALONE?
Reselling land remains as much a means for survival in Africa as sending “wired money” to
loved ones from abroad. For those who have remained within their native land, they are also victims of
land dispute crimes that may even include murder. Whether one is partnering with the elected governments of current nation-states or engaging the guidance
of traditional chiefs, the results lead to the same conclusion: If you have no title to your homeland, you have no place
to go!
However,
if you are considered a foreigner, an “obruni”, forget it!!! Who determines the rightful owners and entitlement
to land? Even with documents, are the educated elite victims or enablers with this culpability? What can be gained from this
current situation that will enlighten African countries like Ghana to practice what it preaches within its churches, mosques,
traditional temples, and classrooms?
Unfortunately,
my dilemma is not a unique one. There are thousands of African Americans losing their hard-earned money in search of their
“African Dream”. As I gain more information about global land fraud and disputes, I also recognize a connection
between corruption, greed, and illiteracy that is practiced in a variety of forms on both sides of the Atlantic.
Since the initial writing, I have secured several stories that are similar to mine. Many African Americans bought into
the “African Dream”, and have also experienced the nightmare of great losses, financially, culturally, and emotionally.
But, the situation is not totally an African American dilemma. There
are Ghanaians, who have also suffered from this misrepresentation. In an article posted by the Ghana Land Administration Project, Sheikh Abraham C. Quaye, Greater Accra Regional Minister
has observed:
…that the multiple sale of land to prospective buyers was not helping the cause of land administration. "The
effect of this is the negative impact on the socio-economic progress making it difficult for investors to locate the final
authority in concessionary matters…
He continues:
…many
tracts of land for state institutions had been encroached upon with reckless abandon and therefore welcomed the reconstitution
of the Regional Lands Commission…that the land problem had been compounded with engagement of land guards, which was
the recruitment and arming of persons with violent disposition by chiefs, families and land owners to harass and intimidate
and sometimes kill prospective developers in some parts of the country, especially in the Greater Accra Region.
These land dispute issues within Ghana are very complex, and could be the unraveling of its
global image of peace and gentleness. As one who has attempted to purchase land in Ghana, I have found the lack of implementing
legal practices and actions-not simply making national policies-has created mistrust that continues to impact the moral fiber
of Ghanaian society. As one who considers Ghana a “second home”, it burdens my heart to watch the land issues
cause current and future distances between Africans, and particularly with African Americans.
Some
have told me that it depends upon “who you know” in order to get positive results. But, that is not accurate either,
and it is certainly a long way from promoting democracy based upon equal access
and opportunity. If one is not a “celebrity”, chances are quite unlikely that a serious homecoming is possible.
Equally, it is discouraging to know that these abuses have been longstanding among groups within the country, even before
Independence.
This current façade of wanting others to return to Ghana is too
often full of talk with little or no evidence of sincerity. While tourism is promoted throughout the Continent,
the harsh realities are clear that tourists are simply to “visit and leave”. Those who remain, often succumbing
to less than second-class status, are further alienated because of difficulties surrounding dual citizenship, employment,
and land ownership.
The other side of this issue is the reality of the dire needs of many
within Ghana that the land could better provide for its traditional owners. Behind those welcoming smiles, there is dire suffering
of the mind, body, and spirit that the tourists are often guarded from seeing. There must be some way where benefit is equitably
possible for all.
Additionally, there are practices of class inequality that often jolt the
more “liberating” tourist’s psyche. It is especially troublesome to those of us who know African America’s
history, and our position against such customs as calling grown men “boys”, or publicly reprimanding adult caretakers
as if children. It is no wonder that Ghanaian citizens who have not benefited from private (or public) education might seize
any opportunity available to improve daily life by bilking anyone for mere basic necessities. However, the lack of effective
laws and practices, along with the customary acceptance for greed and obsession of individual materialism on all levels within
society, continue to delay possible solutions to this mutually-embarrassing issue.
What has
happened to what Nkrumah coined as the “African personality”? Where is the commitment to African consciousness
and ethics that were displayed within ancient African traditions promoting fairness, righteousness, and truth? Such ideals
did not reach African soils as a part of Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. They were there long before some foreigners decided
that visiting was not enough!
Long before current spiritual and philosophical practices regarding
relationships, there were African value systems such as “Ubuntu”, “Kawaida”, and “Maat”.
The land was there; so were the people; so were the customs. What has happened to collective responsibility, balanced reciprocity,
and genuine hospitality? Are these ideals merely words learned in order to graduate from foreign schools? Are these ideals
mimicked in order to gain further dependence upon foreign aid? Are these ideals promoted simply to get local hands in foreign
pockets? Where is the love of Africans no matter where they are currently located; no matter how long they have been away?
Where is the love for African land whether it remains in the hands of original owners for generations, or legally deeded to
responsible caretakers for 99 years?
Instability in Africa definitely has land as a significant part of the conflicts. Insecurity
of tenure can feed instability at different levels. Land issues continue to be easily politicized at the continental level.
Agrarian relations under stress in rural areas are also due to social transformation and intergenerational tensions. While
there are specific problems within local areas, conflict within each country also has regional dimensions. Until there is
appropriate reform, land conflicts will continue to undermine efforts for peace and partnerships.
The need for reform requires progressive land policies that involve participatory inclusion by
the buyers and sellers. Foreigners’ rights to land must be considered a valid part of this progressive process. Finally,
removal of “foreigner” status towards African Americans must be seriously reconsidered and efforts to encourage
genuine contributors to return and fulfill the dream of a United African Union. Yet there is something more that must also
accompany reform. I call it a return to the African art of “Reciprocity”.
VII.
THE ART OF RECIPROCITY:
AN
ANTIDOTE TO ‘A SAGGING LOAD’ ON THE VERGE TO EXPLODE
Reciprocity,
an ancient practice of social order and the need for balanced exchange, appears to be an issue too often neglected when discussing
how Africa’s Diasporans return to the Continent. Whether it was four hundred years or forty days since their departure
from Africa, the need for all to benefit from the return is a major issue. To date, it appears that the emphasis has been
upon Diasporans returning in order to increase and improve the economy of African nations. But the question must be raised
what do Diasporans get in return besides a good feeling? Where is the reciprocity?
What is the process towards reconciliation?
Throughout my studies, I continue to agonize
over these questions, and the issue of reciprocity seems to only become a gateway to yet another more sacred need that must
be address as we seek authentic community on both sides of the Atlantic. Perhaps, that solution is to examine the ancient
tradition of “Ubuntu”, the African tradition of community.
According to Archbishop Desmond Tutu, he describes this perspective, Ubuntu:
“(it)
is not, “I think therefore I am.” It says rather: “I am a human because I belong. I participate. I share.”’
In essence, I am because you are.
Somehow, we have forgotten that to be human is to recognize that our actions
impact others; that our needs are at the expense of others; that our desires are influenced by the inspiration of others.
Ubuntu reminds us of this on so many levels. Yet, we seem to have forgotten
the importance of Ubuntu, even at the elementary level of reciprocity. Reciprocity is the exchange and the obligation
to exchange for the good of the community. Ubuntu is even more because
it requires that we know why it is important to be obligated to one another within a reciprocal relationship. Ubuntu reminds
us that reciprocity is for the good of the community while it simultaneously reinforces our individual identity.
During our 2007 visit to Ghana, we attended the opening of Panafest, an art and cultural festival
held bi-annually. It was also the commemoration of the newly renovated tourist attraction at Assi Manso that memorialized
the last bath of captured Africans before their imprisonment within the nearby Elmina and Cape Coast forts (popularly referred
to as “castles”). Thousands of Africans from all over the Continent and the Diaspora were in attendance. Celebrities,
politicians, grass-root leaders, tourists, and the curious were present and contributing to the celebrative atmosphere.
I particularly focused upon the part children played in the festivities.
They were everywhere. While some were residents of the town, many were visiting from other towns, countries, and continents.
It was obvious that many parents found this occasion very beneficial to their children. For many visitors, it was a sacred
pilgrimage and an opportunity to learn more and be a part of their history. However, for many locals it was another opportunity
to gain some economical improvement for their community from those they identified as “tourists”.
How would it be possible to have both needs met without minimizing the larger need for reconciliation and reciprocity?
Reciprocity, the need for balanced exchange, appears to be an issue
too often neglected when discussing how Africa’s Diasporans return to the Continent. Whether it was four hundred years
or forty days since their departure from Africa, the need for all to benefit from the return is a major issue. To date, it
appears that the emphasis has been upon Diasporans returning in order to increase and improve the economy of African nations.
But the question must be raised what do Diasporans get in return besides a good feeling? Where is the reciprocity? What is the process towards reconciliation?
Hard
questions for difficult issues must be raised now in order to avoid future misinterpretations and continued “mis-education”
on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Why? Perhaps the following incident in Assi Manso will shed some light upon this complex
and volatile matter, especially as it relates to our youth:
Assi Manso: Teaching Youth The Value Of Historical
Reciprocity
While contributing to the signing of a permanent wall in the main courtyard at Assi
Manso, I was approached by several children for money. The requests were more subtle than in previous years, but they were
still persistent. As I reached for my purse, I noticed that there were several photos of great African American leaders on
the outer walls of the courtyard. So being the “teacher”, I asked some of the children if they knew the names
of the people in the pictures. They said “yes” as they pushed closer with hands extended for a token. So I asked
them to name one…any one of them. Someone noted the picture of Kwame Nkrumah and the others chimed in with him. But
that was not the answer I wanted, so I asked them again to name someone else because “everyone” knew Nkrumah.
At that point it became silent. I began pointing to the other pictures. No one knew…or they were not saying. So then
I presented a challenge, “ if you can name any of these men and women I will give you a reward (which is something I
do in my classes in the U.S. on a regular basis).
No one could name one of the
leaders. That is when I decided a “teachable moment” was in order. With approximately fifty children in tow, we
went to each picture and read the paragraph that described the accomplishments of the person. In unison, the children repeated
each name as we went from one picture to the other. At the end of the session, I gave the only student
who had repeated all of the names a monetary reward to be shared by all. He was older than the others, so I pulled him to
the side and required that he take the sum of money and give each child one of the bills. Instead, he ran out of the courtyard
leaving the others with nothing.
Naturally, they wanted me to give them more
money in spite of the fact that I had given money to the one who was the only one who had completed the assignment. While
they followed us silently, no one else attempted to repeat the names or participate vocally. However, when the money was given
and the recipient bolted out of the courtyard, they voiced their desire for more money…from me. My response was that
they needed to catch the fellow who took their portion. I had done what I promised; now it was up to them to “reap”
where they had not “sowed”.
Granted, had I attempted this in some parts of America, I might have been attacked immediately.
But not in Ghana; the children are still respectful even when they may not agree with the way matters are handled by elders.
But, my concern is much larger than the exchange or inequity of money. My concern rests with the lack of emphasis or concern
that was clearly apparent regarding the history and education regarding African Diasporans, particularly African Americans.
While lip service is given to many about “welcoming home” those who voluntarily and
involuntarily departed the Continent, what is actually being taught about them? Are the schools teaching the youth? Is the
media addressing the history and current events that would justify why Diasporans should be considered more than mere contributors
to the economy of Africa as tourists?
For those who have ever participated in the process
of courtship, one readily learns how disgusting it is to be considered a “meal ticket”. Songs have been written
about what happens when a man or woman’s cash value is the only reason for the relationship. Is this what our “return”
means to those who so desperately need revenue? I hope not.
Our children will continue to
perish if all they see in relationships is how much they can get from someone. Our children perish from a lack of knowledge
of self and those across national boundaries and the shores of oceans.
Let us not replace the welcome mat with cash boxes, only!
That
is why the art of reciprocity is so important, today. Reciprocity leads to a lifestyle of “Ubuntu”.
Ubuntu means “humanity” and is related to the spiritual forces that include spirits, both the human dead
and the living. According to Archbishop Desmond Tutu:
The person who is living ubuntu is welcoming, hospitable, warm, and generous.
Such a person is affirming of others and does not feel threatened that others are good. Such people have the self-assurance
that come from knowing they belong in a greater whole. They know they are diminished when others are humiliated, tortured,
oppressed and or treated as if they were less than who they are.
While it is true that
a people cannot build a community without reciprocity, it is even more vital that the people recognize the global significance
of reciprocity to the ultimate goal of “Ubuntu”.
Why?
Without recognizing the importance of reciprocity - equal and balanced exchange - among Africans globally, there is no place
for any of us, anywhere as people to be respected and treated as serious competitors. Without land, and access to land as
citizens, Africa remains hampered by its own omission of its magnificent past that can guide and empower the future. Without
a sincere desire to balance exchange, we miss the opportunity to work collectively towards Africa truly becoming self-determined
by (all) Africans today, yesterday, the day before, and the days to come. Thank you.
Author’s
Note: I was invited to attend and submit a question to His Excellency President John Atta-Mills at the Embassy of Ghana, Washington,
D.C. The following is my question:
Long before
the current U.S. interest in establishing “partnerships” with Ghana, your country has been a welcoming haven for
many African Americans. From the first celebration of Independence to the most recent ones, many African Americans have considered
Ghana their “second home.
However, there is evidence of many hindrances
and disappointments facing African Americans in their quest to establish long-term relationships with Ghana, such as the oblique
procedures regarding land ownership, and the limited eligibility for dual citizenship. To date, dual citizenship is exclusively
directed towards Ghanaians who have successfully acquired citizenship within other countries like the United States. However,
it is not reciprocal.
My question, His Excellency, is two fold:
(1)“How can the Lands Commission Act of 2008 and the current
Ghana Land Administration Project assist African Americans who have purchased land in good faith, who hold documents and have
signatures of both sellers and governmental officials, but are unable to be assured that the property will not be continuously
sold to others, and also risk harm and possible death to those who attempt to build?” and…
(2) “Besides
the ‘Right To Abode’ procedures that African Americans must endure to remain residents in Ghana, how can the current
efforts that encourage Ghanaians within the Diaspora to maintain dual citizenship also include African Americans who seek
a more permanent identity than that of an extended guest or a temporary tourist?”
Unfortunately, the President did not entertain any questions from the audience. Instead, there were select presentations
made by members of his Cabinet. There were also comments made by selected leaders of organizations representing Ghanaians
living in North America.
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Additional Suggested Readings
•Ani, Marimba. YURUGU: An African-Centered Critique of European Cultural Thought and Behavior. Trenton:
Africa World Press, 1994.
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The Clash of Civilizations”. Presented in Accra, Ghana,West Africa: W.E.B. Dubois Center, July 10, 1998.
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Mamillan, 2005.
•Ben-Jochannan, Yosef. ABU-SIMBEL TO GHIZEH; A Guide Book and
Manual. Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1987.
•Billingsley, Andrew. Climbing Jacob’s
Ladder: The Enduring Legacy of African American Families. New York: Touchstone Books, 1992.
•Benedict, Ruth. PATTERNS OF CULTURE. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (first published 1934).
•Cohen, Anthony P. THE SYMBOLIC CONSTRUCTION OF COMMUNITY. London: Tavistock Publications, 1985.
•Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum Publishing
Company, 1996
•Pedagogy of Hope: Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
New York: Continuum Publishing Company.
•Gans, Herbert J. POPULAR CULTURE &
HIGH CULTURE: An Analysis and Evaluation of Taste. New York: Basis Books, Inc., 1974.
•Graham, Lawrence Otis. Our Kind of People: Inside America’s Black Upper Class. New York: 2000.
•Haymes, Stephen Nathan. RACE, CULTURE AND THE CITY: A
Pedagogy For Black Urban Struggle. New York: State University of New York Press, 1995.
•Hatcher, Evelyn. ART AS CULTURE: An Introduction To The Anthropology of Art. Lanham: University Press of America, 1985.
•Hord, Fred Lee(ed.) BLACK CULTURE CENTERS. Chicago: Third World Press, 2005.
•Holloway, Joseph E. and Winifred K. Vass. THE AFRICAN HERITAGE of AMERICAN ENGLISH. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1997.
•Jenkins, Timothy and Khafra K Om-Ra Seti. BLACK FUTURISTS IN THE INFORMATION
AGE. Washington: Unlimited Visions, 1997.
Suggested
Readings
•King, Joyce E. BLACK EDUCATION: A Transformative Research
and Action Agenda for the New Century. Malwah: LEA Publishing, 2005.
•King, Sharon Minor. RETHINKING CIVILIZED BEHAVIOR: The Role of the African American Culture Center in The Sixth Millennium(paper/presentation).
Nashville: Association for Black Culture Centers, 1999.
•“Our Dispersed People: True
Beginnings of the African Diaspora”. Nashville: Townsend Press, 2002.
•Maquet,
Jacques. THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE: An Anthropologist Looks At The Visual Arts. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
Mumford, Lewis. THE CULTURE OF CITIES. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, (first published 1938).
•Myers, Linda James. UNDERSTANDING AN AFROCENTRIC WORLD VIEW: Introduction to an Optimal Psychology.
Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1988.
•Nanda, Serena. CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY.
Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1987.
Suggested
Readings
•Nesmith, Eleanor Lynn. INSTANT ARCHITECTURE. New York: Fawcett Columbine,
1995.
•Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. The African Presence in
the Americas, 1492-1992. New York: New York Public Library, 1992.
•Shapiro, Thomas
M. THE HIDDEN COST OF BEING AFRICAN AMERICAN: How Wealth Perpetuates Inequality. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
•Spindler, George D.(ed). Doing The Ethnography of Schooling. Educational
Anthropology in Action. New York: CBS College Publishing, 1982.
•Woodson, Carter
G. The Education of the Negro. Washington, D.C.: The Associated Publishers,
Inc. 1919.
•The Mis-education of the Negro. Washington, D.C.: The
Associated Publishers, Inc. 1932.
•Wright, W.D. CRISIS OF THE BLACK INTELLECTUAL.Chicago:
Third World Press, 2007.
To Be Published by Sharon Minor King (currently found on Facebook & www.cyberchurchinternationalacademy.com
THE INDIGENOUS AFRICAN AMERICAN: An Introspective View of Culture, Identity, and Heritage (to be published, 2010).
IS ANYONE LISTENING TO OURSELVES? The Shadow Behind
Current African Destabilization Efforts.
My own personal experiences during my site visits provided opportunities for me to determine
similarities and differences between how problems are solved within the U.S. and Ghana. This approach to gathering and experiencing
within the research process continues to be important because it allows the “prepared” researcher an opportunity
to “gather while giving”, reciprocal relations, which is an approach that relates closer to “Ubuntu”
(I am because I belong to the collective”) rather than the traditional research methods of collecting and later defining
the “other” without his or her endorsement or consent. As one who values my African identity on both sides, it
is my intentions to continue to respect, recognize and uphold the relationships I have and to wish no hurt, harm, or endangerment
to anyone.
The African Diaspora refers to the dispersal of African peoples all over the world through
voluntary, forced and induced migrations. These have resulted, thereby, in the relocation and re-definition
of African peoples in a range of now international locations and their recreation and reformation of these cultures
wherever they exist.
The African Union defines the African diaspora as "[consisting]
of people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing
to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares
that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African Diaspora as an important part of our continent,
in the building of the African Union."
I have chosen to use the word “indigenous” when referring to African Americans
born in the United States for several reasons. One, to identify with those who sacrificed so much in order for so many Africans
to achieve in the United States is worth identifying with the many culture groups classified as “indigenous”,
globally. Two, with so many members of culture groups adopting the term, “African Americans” as their own, it
is still important for those who originated the term to differentiate as those who acknowledge their parents born in the Americas
or the Caribbean.
(e.g. Madoff ‘s global scandal; Societe Generale fraud; Enron misrepresentation; sub-prime
loans predominantly targeted to African Americans and other cultures of color.
Music like Ellington’s “Springtime in Africa”; Coltrane’s or Abbey
Lincoln’s versions of “Afro-Blue”(1963/1959); or Lutan Fuyah’s or Horace Silver’s, “African
Queen”; or Bernie Williams’, Jim Peppers’, majid Bekkas, Amina Claudine, renditions of “African Blues;
or Randy Weston’s “African Village; or The Mario Escal…“African Flower”;
Richard M. Jones, “African Hunch”; James Booker’s, “African Gumbo”; Eartha Kitt’s, “African
Lullaby”; Dead Prez, “I’m A African”; Abbey Lincoln’s “African Lady”.
Nana Okofi was killed by a hit-and-run on July 3, 2007; both Dr. ben-Jochannan and Asa Hilliard
have joined the ancestor; we will miss them; but the struggle continues as we discover the relevance of DNA testing in tracing
our ancestry. Scientific evidence of ancestry has become a booming enterprise within the U.S. Celebrities and select scholars
are endorsing this source of identifying their roots to Africa.
There are no concrete statistics on the number of African-Americans who have decided to
settle in Africa. U.S. embassies do not register Americans living in individual countries by race. However, Tanzania, Ghana,
Senegal, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Ethiopia and South Africa are among the countries that have welcomed African-Americans…
Many are attracted by the ideal of solidarity and the prospect of being part of the racial majority. Others seek business
opportunities that will both contribute to Africa's development and lead to personal gain. Still others want their children
to appreciate their cultural heritage and to grow up in communities where their role models are people of color. Some come
to retire.
Repatriation: to restore or return to the country of origin, allegiance, or citizenship.
Even during the resolution declared by the first Pan-African Congress, the issue of land was
dealt with:
1. The land and its resources shall be held in trust for the native and at all times they shall have effective ownership
of as much land as they can profitably develop…
2.
This corresponds to the The Declaration of Rights for Africans:
We believe that any law or practice that tends
to deprive any African of his land or the privileges of free citizenship within his country is unjust and immoral, and no
native should respect any such law or practice…
3.
(PAC-6)Further under The Control of Africa’s Land By Africans…
The return to (Africans) their Land it
s natural fruits, and defense against unrestrained greed of invested capital…
4. (Declaration of Rights-14)
We believe in the inherent right of the
‘Negro’ to possess himself of Africa, and that his possession of same shall not be regarded as an infrigement
on any claim or purchase made by any race or nation…
In 2005, a presentation was given by the United Nation’s Development Project (UNDP).
Ten issues were displayed regarding land as a set of converging issues:
1.
Rights of access and ownership;
2.
Land for sustaining livelihoods and mitigating risks;.
3. Security of land access;
4.
Governance and the rule of law (in relation to land);
5. Land and non-agrarian opportunity structures;
6.
Land and agrarian opportunity structures;
7. Urbanisation (urban migration, urban land issues);
8.
Agricultural labour mobility (in relation to land);
9. Agricultural labour mobility (in relation to land);
10.
Land as capital.
30 Nana Okofi was killed by a hit-and-run on July 3, 2007. This paper is dedicated to him for
his vision of unity and generosity for and among African people.
31 Refer to Woodson et al…
Cover painting is “The Apology”
by S.M.King, Acrylics on canvas. 2007.
